What is the relation between the amount of violent television children watch and the aggressive behaviors they display?
Methodology and Ethics
Social Psychology: An Empirical Science
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Social Psychology: An Empirical Science
Results of some experiments may seem obvious
Why?
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Scientific Method
H ypothesize
O perationalize
M easure
E valuate
R evise/Replicate
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How are Hypotheses Formulated?
Previous theories and research
Personal observation
HYPOTHESIS: an explicit, testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur.
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Operationalize
Conceptual variable: The general abstract definition of a variable. (the dictionary definition)
Operational definition: The specific procedures for manipulating or measuring a conceptual variable. (concrete application)
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“Birds of a feather flock together.”
Hypothesis (conceptual)
similar people will be more attracted to each other
Hypothesis (operational)
personality test choose partners
height, age attraction questionnaire
Construct Validity: How well measures in a study reflect the variables they are intended to measure and manipulations in a study reflect the variables they are intended to manipulate.
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1.Response to a mirror
2. Questionnaire
1. Questionnaire
2. non-verbal behavior
1. time spend staring
2. questionnaire
3. pupil dilation
1. speed running away
2. questionnaire
3. facial expression
Evaluation of the self
Negative feeling based on group membership
Desire between two people
Feeling scared
Self-esteem
Prejudice
Attraction
Fear
Operational
(concrete)
Conceptual (dictionary)
Variables
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Scientific Method
H ypothesize
O perationalize
M easure
E valuate
R evise/Replicate
Social psychologists use the same methods as other scientists.
Theories and hypotheses can change dramatically
Researchers often find that collected data indicate findings that are quite disparate from the projected findings
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Three Measurement Methods
Observational
Goal: Description
Correlational
Goal: Prediction
Experimental
Goal: Answer causal questions
Observational Method
Researcher observes people and systematically records measurements of impressions of their behavior.
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Observational Method
Ethnography
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Observational Method
Archival Analysis (Historical Records)
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Observational Method Example
Research Question
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Observational Method Example
Method
Behaviors are concretely defined before the observation begins
Observer systematically:
Accuracy of observer is assessed
Interjudge reliability
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Interjudge Reliability
Interjudge Reliability
The level of agreement between two or more people who independently observe and code a set of data.
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Limits of Observational Method
Certain behaviors difficult to observe
Archival analysis
Does not allow prediction and explanation
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Advantage:
Disadvantage:
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Correlational Method
Two or more variables are systematically measured and the relation between them is assessed.
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Example Research Question Using Correlational Method
What is the relation between the amount of violent television children watch and the aggressive behaviors they display?
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Positive Correlation
INCREASES in the value of one variable are associated with INCREASES in the value of the other variable
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Negative Correlation
INCREASES in the value of one variable are associated with DECREASES in the value of the other variable
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The Correlation Coefficient
Correlation coefficients range from –1.00 to +1.00
+ 1.00 perfectly correlated in a positive direction
0 means that two variables are not correlated
– 1.00 perfectly correlated in a negative direction
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Figure 2.1 The Correlation Coefficient The diagrams below show three possible correlations in a hypothetical study of watching violence on television and aggressive behavior in children. The diagram at the left shows a strong positive correlation: The more television children watched, the more aggressive they were. The diagram in the middle shows no correlation: The amount of television children watched is not related to how aggressive they were. The diagram at the right shows a strong negative correlation: The more television children watched, the less aggressive they were.
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The Correlational Method
Surveys
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Population
Sample
Random Sampling:
A random sample (N=1000) allows us to generalize our
findings back to THIS population.
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Surveys Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
Disadvantage
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Correlation ≠ causation!
Correlational method tells us only that two variables are related
Social psychology’s goal
Identify causes of social behavior
Be able to say that A causes B, not just that A is correlated with B
# churches
# bars
town size
Limits of the Correlational Method
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Correlation ≠ Causation
Three possible causal relations when a correlation is found (e.g., TV violence and aggression are correlated)
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Correlational Research
Advantage:
Disadvantage:
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The Experimental Method
Experimental Research:
Researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions, conditions are identical except for the independent variable (the one thought to have a causal effect on people’s responses).
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Independent Variable (IV)
The IV is what researchers manipulate to see if it has a causal effect
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Dependent Variable (DV)
The DV is what researchers measure to see if it is affected
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Independent Variable (IV)
Variable that is the CAUSE of the dependent variable
Variable that is manipulated (changed systematically)
Dependent Variable (DV)
Variable that is the EFFECT
Variable that is measured
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IV and DV Example using Latané and Darley (1970)
IV
Number of bystanders
DV
Helping behavior
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Figure 2.2 Independent and Dependent Variables in experimental research Researchers vary the independent variable (e.g., the number of bystanders people think are present) and observe what effect that has on the dependent variable (e.g., whether people help).
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Hypothesis: Similarity causes liking
IV?
DV?
Internal Validity
Experiments Should Have Internal Validity
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Increasing Internal Validity
Control extraneous variables
Randomly assign people to experimental conditions
Experimental
2 reasons experiments can show causal
relationships or “two requirements for success”
Control
Random assignment
Need BOTH for it to be an experiment!
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Random Assignment
Distributes differences in participants (e.g., personalities, backgrounds) evenly across conditions
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Random
Assignment
group A
group B
EQUAL
interacts with
similar partner
interacts with
dissimilar partner
Manipulation (IV)
Measure (DV)
likes partner
dislikes partner
UNEQUAL
Hypothesis: similarity causes liking
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Random
Assignment
group A
group B
EQUAL
Manipulation (IV)
Measure (DV)
UNEQUAL
Hypothesis: the more people present the less helping behavior exhibited
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Scientific Method
H ypothesize
O perationalize
M easure
E valuate
R evise/Replicate
Social psychologists use the same methods as other scientists.
Theories and hypotheses can change dramatically
Researchers often find that collected data indicate findings that are quite disparate from the projected findings
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Probability Level (p-value)
A number calculated with statistical techniques
Indicates likelihood results of experiment occurred by chance instead of the IV(s)
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Probability Level (p-value)
The convention in science is to consider results significant when
p< .05
Limits of Experimental Method
Experimental situations can be
Artificial
Distant from real life
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Advantage:
Disadvantage:
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Scientific Method
H ypothesize
O perationalize
M easure
E valuate
R evise/Replicate
Social psychologists use the same methods as other scientists.
Theories and hypotheses can change dramatically
Researchers often find that collected data indicate findings that are quite disparate from the projected findings
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Get the results you expect replicate experiment with different population
Don’t get the results you expect revise your hypothesis, revise your operationalization, and/or revise your method of measurement
Next steps…
Validity in Experiments
Internal and External Validity
Internal validity – Making sure that nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable
External validity – The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people.
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Two Kinds of External Validity
Generalizability across
Situations
2. People
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Generalizability Across Situations
Mundane Realism
Psychological Realism
Was it psychologically similar?
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Generalizability Across Situations
When people feel involved in a real event, the psychological realism is increased
Cover story
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Generalizability Across People
Random selection of participants from population
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Increasing Internal Validity
Control extraneous variables
Randomly assign people to experimental conditions
Increasing External Validity
Use of field experiments:
Study behavior outside of the lab, in natural setting
Same design as a laboratory experiment, but use real-life setting
(sidewalk, store, street, campus)
Participants unaware they are in an experiment
External validity is high
Takes place in the real world
Basic Dilemma of the Social Psychologist: trade-off between internal and external validity
By increasing internal validity, some external validity (generalizability) is sacrificed
By increasing external validity (e.g., a field experiment), control over the setting is lost and internal validity is sacrificed
Basic Dilemma of the Social Psychologist
The way to resolve this basic dilemma is not to try to do everything in a single experiment!
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Addressing the Basic Dilemma
First, maximize internal validity to identify cause using laboratory experiments
Then, establish external validity using replication in:
Different settings
Different populations
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Addressing the Basic Dilemma
Maximize external validity with field studies
Do both field studies and experiments
Replication maximizes internal and external validity
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Types of Research: Basic Versus Applied Research
Basic Research Experiments
Answer basic questions about human behavior
Applied Studies
Directed toward solving social problems
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ETHICS
Ethics
Ethics in Psychological Research
Guidelines for Doing Research with People
Rights and well-being of participants outweigh the study’s value to science
Participants must be allowed to make an informed decision about participation
Deception must be justified
Participants may withdraw from the study at any time
Participants protected from risks or told explicitly of risks
Investigator must debrief participants
Data must remain confidential
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A few ethical considerations
Informed consent: an individual’s deliberate, voluntary decision to participate in research, based on the researcher’s description of what will be required during participation.
Deception: a technique whereby researchers withhold information about the purposes or procedures of a study from their participants
Some kinds of research may require it.
However, its use raises ethical issues:
Participant could be harmed (experience distress, anxiety).
Participant could develop negative attitudes toward psychological research (resent)
Resolving the dilemma
Should not be used to persuade people to take part in the research
Informed consent should be used
Debriefing
Only use it if you really have to!
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Role of the Institutional Review Board (IRB)
The role of the IRB is to protect the rights and welfare of individual research subjects.
This goals is accomplished by having the IRB assure that the following requirements
are satisfied:
1. risk to subjects are minimized
2. risk to subjects are reasonable in relation to anticipated benefits,
3. selection of subjects is equitable, i.e. fair
4. informed consent is sought form each subject or his/her legally authorized
representative,
5. informed consent is appropriately documented,
6. when appropriate, the research plan makes provisions for monitoring data
collection,
7. privacy and confidentiality of research subjects is appropriately protected, and
8. when some or all of the subjects are likely to be vulnerable to coercion or undue
influence, additional safeguards have been included.
The IRB process
All research on human subjects must go to IRB
What kinds of studies will be considered exempt? Eligible for expedited review? Requiring full review?
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Trinity’s IRB
Cases that lead to the IRB
These studies led to the creation of the
IRB which were formed to protect human subjects involved in research:
Unethical Nazi experiments
Willowbrook study
Laud Humphrey’s “Tearoom Sex” study
Stanley Milgram’s experiment
Tuskegee Syphilis study
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Milgram (1963)
Strap in the learner (confederate)
Shock generator (participant)
Learner (confederate) and teacher (participant)
Cover Story: Influence of punishment on memory. Increasing voltage shocks for errors.
Experimenter orders teacher to obey, learner gives scripted pain responses.
DV: How high in voltage the teacher goes before refusing to continue.
Milgram
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=auKeZvQuQRc&feature=related
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Tuskegee
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3TqrHiO5GwU
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CJa4Qd-FB7
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